View source for Chilean cruiser Esmeralda (1883)

{{short description|Protected cruiser}}
{{other ships|Chilean ship Esmeralda}}
{{Featured article}}

{|{{Infobox ship begin
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{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox ship image
| Ship image = Crucero Esmeralda.jpg 
| Ship caption = Illustration of ''Esmeralda'' by Norman Davis for the ''[[Illustrated London News]]'', 1891
| image alt = refer to caption
}}
{{Infobox ship career
| Hide header = 
| Ship country = Chile
| Ship flag = {{shipboxflag|Chile|navy}}
| Ship name = ''Esmeralda''
| Ship namesake = {{ship|Chilean corvette|Esmeralda}}<ref>Vio Valdivieso, ''Reseña historica'', 96.</ref>
| Ship ordered = 
| Ship builder = [[Armstrong Whitworth|Armstrong Mitchell]], [[Elswick, Tyne and Wear|Elswick]], [[United Kingdom]]
| Ship original cost = 
| Ship yard number = 429
| Ship laid down = 5 April 1881
| Ship launched = 6 June 1883
| Ship completed = 15 July 1884
| Ship commissioned = 
| Ship decommissioned = 
| Ship in service = 
| Ship out of service = 
| Ship renamed = 
| Ship struck = 
| Ship reinstated = 
| Ship honours = 
| Ship captured = 
| Ship fate = Sold to Japan, 1894
| Ship notes = 
}}
{{Infobox ship career
| Hide header = title
| Ship country = [[Empire of Japan]]
| Ship flag = {{shipboxflag|Empire of Japan|naval}}
| Ship renamed = ''Izumi''
}}
{{Infobox ship career
| Hide header = yes
| Ship namesake = [[Izumi Province]]
| Ship ordered = 
| Ship commissioned = 
| Ship decommissioned = 
| Ship in service = 
| Ship out of service = 
| Ship struck = 1 April 1912
| Ship homeport = 
| Ship honours = 
| Ship fate = Scrapped
| Ship notes = 
}}
{{Infobox ship characteristics
| Hide header = 
| Header caption = 
| Ship type = [[Protected cruiser]]
| Ship displacement = {{convert|2950|LT|t|0|lk=in|abbr=on}}
| Ship length = {{convert|270|ft|abbr=on}} ([[Length between perpendiculars|pp]])
| Ship beam = {{convert|42|ft|abbr=on}}
| Ship draft = {{convert|18|ft|6|in|abbr=on|0}}
| Ship propulsion = *2 [[compound steam engine]]s 
*600 tons coal, max
| Ship power = *4 double-ended [[fire-tube boiler]]s
* {{convert|6803|ihp|kW|0|abbr=on|lk=on}}
| Ship speed = {{convert|18.3|kn|1|lk=in}}
| Ship range = 
| Ship complement = 296
| Ship sensors = 
| Ship EW = 
| Ship armament =
*2 × {{cvt|10|in|0}}/30
*6 × {{cvt|6|in|0}}/26
*2 × [[QF 6 pounder Hotchkiss|6 pdr ({{cvt|2.25|in|mm}})]] guns
*5 × {{cvt|37|mm}} revolving cannon
| Ship armor = *Up to {{convert|1|in|abbr=on}} [[deck armor]]
| Ship notes = 
}}
|}
The '''Chilean cruiser ''Esmeralda''''' was the first [[protected cruiser]], a ship type named for the arched [[deck armor|armored deck]] that protected vital areas like propulsion machinery and ammunition [[Magazine (artillery)|magazines]].

The British shipbuilder [[Armstrong Whitworth|Armstrong Mitchell]] constructed ''Esmeralda'' in the early 1880s, and the company's founder hailed the new ship as "the swiftest and most powerfully armed cruiser in the world".<ref name="Esmeralda in the Record">"[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433070786029&view=1up&seq=259 The 'Esmeralda,']" ''Record'' (Valparaiso) 13, no. 183 (4 December 1884): 5.</ref> After it entered service, the Chileans deployed ''Esmeralda'' to Panama in 1885 to [[wikt:show the flag|show the flag]] during an [[Panama crisis of 1885|emerging crisis in the region]]. The cruiser was later used to support the [[Government Junta of Chile (1891)|Congressionalist cause]] during the 1891 [[Chilean Civil War of 1891|Chilean Civil War]].

In 1894, ''Esmeralda'' was sold to Japan via Ecuador. Renamed '''''Izumi''''',{{efn-ua|This Japanese name has also been transliterated as ''Idzumi''.<ref>Corbett, ''Maritime Operations'', 465.</ref>}} the cruiser arrived too late to participate in the major naval battles of the 1894–1895 [[First Sino-Japanese War]]. It did see active service in the [[Russo-Japanese War]] ten years later. During that conflict, ''Izumi'' contributed to the decisive Japanese victory in the [[Battle of Tsushima]] by being one of the first ships to make visual contact with the opposing Russian fleet. After the war, the aging cruiser was decommissioned and [[wikt:stricken#Adjective|stricken]] from the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] in 1912.

== Design ==
=== Background ===
''Esmeralda'' was designed and constructed in an era of rapidly advancing naval technology.<ref name="Sondhaus139140"/> It is today recognized as the first [[protected cruiser]], a ship type characterized by its use of an arched armored deck to protect vital areas like propulsion machinery and ammunition [[Magazine (artillery)|magazines]].<ref>Brook, ''Warships for Export'', 44, 53.</ref> Cruisers prior to ''Esmeralda'' were often constructed primarily of wood and nearly all still carried the masts and rigging required for [[sailing]]; ''Esmeralda'' was built of steel and was not rigged for sailing.<ref name="Sondhaus140"/>

The rise of protected cruisers echoed that of the French {{lang|fr|[[Jeune École]]}} naval theory, which catered to nations in a position of naval inferiority.<ref name="Sondhaus139140">Sondhaus, ''Naval Warfare'', 139–140.</ref> As historian Arne Røksund has said, "one of the fundamental ideas in the {{lang|fr|Jeune École}}{{'}}s naval theory [was] that the weaker side should resort to alternative strategies and tactics, taking advantage of the possibilities opened up by technological progress."<ref>Røksund, ''Jeune École'', x.</ref> To accomplish this, {{lang|fr|Jeune École}} adherents called for the construction of small, steam-powered, heavy-gunned, long-ranged, and higher-speed warships to counter the [[capital ship]]-heavy strategy of major navies and devastate their merchant shipping.<ref name="Sondhaus139140"/>

Within the Chilean context, ''Esmeralda'' was ordered in the midst of the [[War of the Pacific]] (1879–1884), fought between Chile and an alliance of Bolivia and Peru. As control of the sea would likely determine the victor, both sides rushed to acquire new and old warships in Europe despite the determination of Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, the Ottoman Empire, and the United Kingdom to remain neutral in the conflict. ''Esmeralda'' was the most capable of these ships, and although British neutrality meant that it could not be delivered until after the war's conclusion, the Chileans ordered it with the intention of gaining naval superiority over their neighbors.<ref name="Grant121-122">Grant, ''Rulers'', 121–122.</ref><ref name="Sondhaus132">Sondhaus, ''Naval Warfare'', 132.</ref>

''Esmeralda'' was designed by the British naval architect [[George Wightwick Rendel]], who developed it from his plans for the earlier {{ship|Japanese cruiser|Tsukushi}}, laid down in 1879.<ref name="Sondhaus132"/><ref>Brook, ''Warships for Export'', 48, 53.</ref>{{efn-ua|Like ''Esmeralda'', ''Tsukushi'' was constructed by the British shipbuilder Armstrong for Chile. With victory in sight in the War of the Pacific, it was sold to Japan in 1883 instead.<ref>Brook, ''Warships for Export'', 51.</ref>}}

=== Publicity and reactions ===
[[File:Esmeralda1884 cropped.png|thumb|right|''[[The Graphic]]'' published this image of ''Esmeralda'' in 1884 and called it the "swiftest and best-armed cruiser afloat"<ref name="Home Graphic"/>|alt=refer to caption]]

The British shipbuilding company Armstrong Mitchell and its founder [[William Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong|William Armstrong]] were keen to publicize ''Esmeralda'', as they believed that doing so would attract additional warship orders. Armstrong boasted to press outlets in 1884 that ''Esmeralda'' was "the swiftest and most powerfully armed cruiser in the world" and that it was "almost absolutely secure from the worst effects of projectiles."<ref name="Esmeralda in the Record"/><ref name="Bastable176">Bastable, ''Arms and the State'', 176.</ref>

Armstrong believed that the protected cruiser warship type, exemplified by ''Esmeralda'', would usher in the end of the [[Ironclad warship|ironclad]] era. According to him, several cruisers could be built and sent out as [[commerce raiders]], much like the [[Confederate States Navy]] warship [[CSS Alabama|''Alabama'']] during the [[American Civil War]], all for the price of one ironclad.<ref name="Home Graphic">"[https://books.google.com/books?id=fOREAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA374 Home]," ''Graphic'' 30, no. 775 (4 October 1884): 347.</ref> This argument closely mirrored the emerging {{lang|fr|Jeune École}} school of naval thought, and protected cruisers like ''Esmeralda'' were hailed by {{lang|fr|Jeune École}} proponents as "the battleship of the future."<ref>Sondhaus, ''Naval Warfare'', 141.</ref>

Armstrong also pointedly noted that it was a friendly country like Chile purchasing the ship rather than one that might become hostile with the United Kingdom. With this comment, Armstrong hoped to induce the [[Royal Navy]] to order protected cruisers from his company to prevent him from selling them to British enemies.<ref name="Esmeralda in the Record" /><ref name="Bastable176" /><ref name="Home Graphic" /> His remarks were later summarized in the [[The Record (Valparaiso)|''Record'']] of Valparaiso:

{{Blockquote|Happily ... she had passed into the hands of a nation which is never likely to be at war with England, for he could conceive no more terrible scourge for our commerce than she would be in the hands of an enemy. No cruiser in the British navy was swift enough to catch her or strong enough to take her. We have seen what the ''Alabama'' could do ... what might we expect from such an incomparably superior vessel as the ''Esmeralda''[?]<ref name="Esmeralda in the Record"/>}}

The promotion did not end with Armstrong himself. His company added a weighty article in the ''Times'' of London that was anonymously written by Armstrong Mitchell's chief naval architect,<ref name="Brook53"/><ref>"[http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/GALE{{!}}CS33736454/TTDA Protected Cruisers]," ''Times'' (London), 6 August 1884, 2a–c – via The Times Digital Archive.</ref> and the [[Prince of Wales]], the future King [[Edward VII]], visited the ship.<ref name="Brook53"/>

These marketing efforts proved quite successful: an 1885 article in ''The Steamship'' journal said that "no vessel of recent construction has attracted greater attention than the protected cruiser ''Esmeralda''".<ref>"The Chilean Cruiser 'Esmeralda'," ''The Steamship'', 41.</ref> The positive attention ''Esmeralda'' wrought significantly benefited Armstrong Mitchell. By the time ''Esmeralda'' was completed in 1884, Armstrong was or would soon be constructing protected cruisers for over a dozen countries.<ref name="Bastable176"/> [[Nathaniel Barnaby]], the [[Director of Naval Construction]] for the British [[Admiralty (United Kingdom)|Admiralty]] (the department in charge of Britain's Royal Navy) would later write that ''Esmeralda'' and the ship type it pioneered "made the fortune" of Armstrong's company and was a major factor in the widespread abandonment of sails in the world's navies.<ref name="Brook53"/><ref name="BrookElswick159">Brook, "The Elswick Cruisers: Part I," 159.</ref>

Across the Atlantic, the ''[[Army and Navy Journal]]'' published an interview with an American naval officer who expressed his belief that ''Esmeralda'' could stand off San Francisco and drop shells into the city while being in no danger from the shorter-ranged shore-based batteries covering the [[Golden Gate]] strait. "Chile has today the finest, fastest, and most perfectly equipped fighting war ship of her size afloat," he said. "She could destroy our entire Navy, ship by ship, and never be touched."<ref>"[https://hdl.handle.net/2027/coo.31924069761652 We Cannot Fight the Chilean Navy]," ''Army and Navy Journal'' 23, no. 1 (1 August 1885): 16.</ref> This hyperbolic perspective was part of a larger effort to draw attention to the underfunded and under-equipped state of the United States Navy.<ref>Sater, ''Chile and the United States'', 51–52.</ref>

In Chile itself, ''Esmeralda''{{'}}s capabilities were highly anticipated: it was financed in part by [[public subscription|public donations]] and the country's newspapers published lengthy [[treatise]]s on the cruiser's potential power.<ref name="Grant122">Grant, ''Rulers'', 122.</ref> Chile's president, [[Domingo Santa María]], said that ''Esmeralda'' would keep the Chilean Navy on a "respectable footing."<ref>[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433070786029&view=1up&seq=73 "The Address of the President]," ''Record'' (Valparaiso) 13, no. 172 (21 June 1884): 2.</ref>

=== Analysis and criticism ===
Like the ''Tsukushi'' design that preceded it, ''Esmeralda'' mounted a heavy armament and was constructed out of lightweight steel, a feature enabled by the Siemens process.<ref name="Brook53">Brook, ''Warships for Export'', 53.</ref><ref>Brook, "Armstrongs and the Italian Navy," 94.</ref> Unlike the earlier ship, ''Esmeralda'' was far larger and had much more seaworthy design, including a [[freeboard]] that was {{convert|5|ft|m}} higher.<ref name="Brook53"/> It was also the fastest cruiser in the world upon its completion; had a better [[secondary armament]]; was able to steam longer distances before needing more coal; and had deck armor that extended the length of the ship to protect the propulsion machinery and magazines.<ref name="Brook53"/><ref>Perrett, "Some Notes," 211.</ref><ref name="Armada de Chile">[https://www.armada.cl/tradicion-e-historia/unidades-historicas/e/crucero-esmeralda-3 Crucero "Esmeralda" 3°], Armada de Chile. Accessed 4 February 2022.</ref> ''Esmeralda'' also favorably compared to the British {{sclass|Comus|corvette|1}} and the American cruisers {{USS|Atlanta|1884|2}} and {{USS|Boston|1884|2}}.<ref>Rodger, "The First Light Cruisers," 219–220.</ref><ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/1884/12/10/archives/the-new-cruisers.html The New Cruisers]," ''The New York Times'', 10 December 1884, 4.</ref>

Still, ''Esmeralda''{{'}}s design was the target of strong criticism from the British Admiralty, especially in comparison to contemporary designs like their {{sclass|Mersey|cruiser|4}}.<ref name="Brook54-55">Brook, ''Warships for Export'', 54–55.</ref> The Chilean ship's freeboard was higher than Armstrong's previous design, but it was still a mere {{convert|10|ft|9|in}} from the [[waterline]]. It also lacked a [[double bottom]], a heavily armored [[conning tower]],{{efn-ua|''Esmeralda''{{'}}s conning tower weighed {{convert|6|LT|ST}}, {{convert|44|LT|ST}} less than ''Mersey''{{'}}s.<ref name="Brook54"/>}} and any provision for emergency steering should the primary steering position be destroyed in battle. Moreover, the design of ''Esmeralda''{{'}}s [[Coal bin|coal bunkers]] meant that if it was hit in certain key areas, water would be able to flow into a large part of the ship.<ref name="Brook54">Brook, ''Warships for Export'', 54.</ref> Finally, an Admiralty comparison of ''Esmeralda'' with the ''Mersey'' design found that the former carried nearly {{nowrap|400 tons}} less armor. That meant that armor made up {{nowrap|3.54 percent}} of the ship's total [[displacement (ship)|displacement]]; the same figure for ''Mersey'' was {{nowrap|12.48 percent}}.<ref name="Brook54-55"/>

Modern assessments have also veered toward the negative. Nearly a century after ''Esmeralda'' was completed, naval historian [[Nicholas A. M. Rodger]] wrote that ''Esmeralda''{{'}}s design suffered from a disconnect between what Rendel designed the ship to do, and the missions most small cruisers in the world, including Chile's, would take on in a conflict: the protection of their own maritime trade or disrupting an enemy's.<ref>Rodger, "The First Light Cruisers," 214, 220.</ref><ref>Brook, ''Warships for Export'', 62.</ref> According to Rodger, Rendel gave ''Esmeralda'' large ten-inch (254&nbsp;mm) guns and a high speed so its captain could choose an appropriate fighting range. This theoretically gave the cruiser the ability to destroy an enemy's most heavily armed and armored capital warships—but the same ten-inch guns were unnecessary for facing down enemy cruisers or raiders, especially as ''Esmeralda''{{'}}s armor gave it a margin of safety when facing ships with smaller weapons.<ref>Rodger, "The First Light Cruisers," 214, 220–221.</ref> [[Warship (magazine)|''Warship'']] contributor Kathrin Milanovich added that the practical utility of ''Esmeralda''{{'}}s ten-inch guns was limited by the light build of the ship, which did not provide a stable platform when firing, and its low freeboard, which meant that the guns could be swamped in rough seas. Milanovich also pointed out the lack of a double bottom and the limited size of ''Esmeralda''{{'}}s coal bunkers.<ref>Milanovich, "Naniwa and Takachiho," 31.</ref>

Except for the designs which immediately followed ''Esmeralda'' (the Japanese {{sclass|Naniwa|cruiser|4}} and the Italian {{ship|Italian cruiser|Giovanni Bausan||2}}), no other Armstrong-built protected cruiser would ever mount a gun larger than {{convert|8.2|in}}.<ref>Brook, ''Warships for Export'', 58 and 62.</ref>

=== Specifications ===
[[File:Esmeralda (ship, 1884) - Brassey's Naval Annual 1887.png|thumb|right|upright=1.5|Plans of ''Esmeralda'' as drawn for the [[The Naval Annual|''Naval Annual'']] of 1887|alt=refer to caption]]
''Esmeralda'' was made entirely of steel and measured in at a length of {{convert|270|ft}} [[Length between perpendiculars|between perpendiculars]]. It had a [[beam (nautical)|beam]] of {{convert|42|ft}}, a mean [[draft (hull)|draft]] of {{convert|18|ft|6|in|m|sigfig=2}}, and displaced {{convert|2950|LT|t|lk=in}}. It was designed for a crew of 296.<ref name="Conway's411">Lyon, "Chile," 411.</ref>

For armament, ''Esmeralda''{{'}}s [[main battery]] was originally equipped with two ten-inch (254&nbsp;mm)/30 [[Caliber (artillery)#Barrel length|caliber guns]] in two single [[barbette]]s, one each fore and aft.<ref name="Conway's411"/>  These weapons were able to be trained to either side of the ship, raised to an angle of 12°, and depressed to 5°. They weighed {{no wrap|25 tons}} each; the shells they fired weighed {{convert|450|lb}} and required a powder charge of {{convert|230|lb}}.<ref name="Brook52"/> Its secondary armament consisted of six {{convert|6|in|mm|adj=on|0}}/26 caliber guns in single [[Vavasseur mounting|Vavasseur central pivot mountings]]; two [[QF 6-pounder Hotchkiss|6-pounder guns]] located on the bridge wings; and five {{convert|37|mm|adj=on|abbr=on}} Hotchkiss revolving cannons located in elevated positions.<ref name="Brook52-53">Brook, ''Warships for Export'', 52–53.</ref><ref name="Conway's411"/> The ship was also fitted [[for but not with]] three {{convert|14|in|mm|adj=on}} [[torpedo tube]]s.<ref name="Brook52"/>

The propulsion machinery consisted of two horizontal [[compound steam engine]]s built by [[R and W Hawthorn]], which were fed by four double-ended [[fire-tube boiler]]s. The engines were placed in separate [[Engine room|compartments]]. On ''Esmeralda''{{'}}s [[sea trial]]s, this machinery proved good for {{convert|6803|ihp|sigfig=3}}, making a speed of {{convert|18.3|kn|sigfig=2}}. The ship generally carried up to {{convert|400|LT}} of coal, but a maximum of {{convert|600|LT}} could be carried if necessary.<ref name="Brook52"/> Unusually, the ship was not equipped with sailing [[rigging]].<ref name="Sondhaus140">Sondhaus, ''Naval Warfare'', 140.</ref>

To protect itself, ''Esmeralda'' had an arched protective deck below the waterline that ran from bow to stern; it was {{convert|1|in}} thick over the important machinery, and {{convert|.5|in}} near the ends of the ship. It also had [[Cork (material)|cork]] mounted along the waterline with the intention of limiting flooding and increasing buoyancy in the case of shell penetration, but the cork's practicality was limited. The ship's coal bunkers were also designed to be part of the protective scheme, but as they were not subdivided, their utility if damaged in battle were also severely questionable. The ship's main guns were provided with shields up to {{convert|2|in}} thick, and the conning tower was provided with 1-inch armor, sufficient only against rifles.<ref>Brook, ''Warships for Export'', 52–54.</ref>{{efn-ua|''Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships'' instead states that the protective deck was a maximum of 2 inches thick, and that the conning tower's armor was 2 inches.<ref name="Conway's411"/>}}

While in Japanese service, ''Esmeralda'' was renamed ''Izumi'' and fitted with two {{convert|6|in|0|adj=on}}/40 caliber [[quick-firing gun]]s (in 1901–02), six {{convert|4.7|in|adj=on}}/40 caliber quick-firing guns (in 1899), several smaller guns, and three {{convert|18|in|adj=on}} torpedo tubes. These changes lightened the ship, making for a displacement of {{convert|2800|LT|0}} even though its machinery could still manage {{convert|6500|ihp|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Brook55"/><ref>Jentschura, Jung, and Mickel, ''Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy'', 98–99.</ref>

== Chilean service ==
Armstrong Mitchell [[keel laying|laid]] ''Esmeralda''{{'}}s keel down on 5 April 1881 in [[Elswick, Tyne and Wear|Elswick]], [[Newcastle upon Tyne]]. They gave it the [[yard number]] 429.<ref name="BrookElswick159"/><ref name="Brook52">Brook, ''Warships for Export'', 52.</ref> The completed hull was [[ceremonial ship launching|launched]] on 6 June 1883, and the ship was completed on 15 July 1884, making for a construction time of just over three years.<ref name="Brook52"/> While the British government upheld its neutrality through the active prevention of warship deliveries to the countries involved in the War of the Pacific, ''Esmeralda'' was finished after the conclusion of the conflict and arrived in Chile on 16 October 1884.<ref name="Grant122"/><ref name="Armada de Chile"/><ref>"<nowiki>[</nowiki>[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=nyp.33433070786029&view=1up&seq=205 Untitled]<nowiki>]</nowiki>," ''Record'' (Valparaiso) 13, no. 180 (22 October 1884): 3.</ref> ''Esmeralda'' allowed Chile to lay claim to possessing the most powerful navy in the Americas, given the United States' [[History of the United States Navy#Decline of the Navy (1865–1882))|naval neglect since the end of their civil war]]: Chile's fleet was centered around ''Esmeralda'', two well-maintained 1870s {{sclass|Almirante Cochrane|ironclad|0}} [[central battery ship|central-battery ironclads]], <!--([[Chilean ironclad Almirante Cochrane|''Almirante Cochrane'']] and [[Chilean ironclad Blanco Encalada|''Blanco Encalada'']])-->and two 1860s [[armored frigate]]s. Moreover, they could staff them with foreign-trained officers and sailors that were well-trained and highly disciplined.<ref>Grant, ''Rulers'', 121–123.</ref><ref>Scheina, ''Latin America'', 43–46.</ref>

In April 1885, the Chilean government sent the ship on an unusual and statement-making voyage to [[show the flag]] in Panama, joining the great powers of France, the United Kingdom, and the United States.<ref name="Tromben">Tromben, "Naval Presence," n.p.</ref> The ship was able to complete the run north in 108 hours, or about four and a half days, maintaining a high average speed of {{convert|12.6|kn}} for the first hundred of those hours.<ref>Bainbridge-Hoff, ''Examples'', 121.</ref> At least one historian has stated that ''Esmeralda'' was ordered to block an annexation of Panama by the United States, which had sent marines and several warships to the area,<ref>Sater, ''Chile and the United States'', 52.</ref> but another has argued that the various sources of information about the incident are contradictory and do not necessarily agree with that interpretation.<ref name="Tromben"/> Through the 1880s, the ship was reportedly docked every four months to have its bottom repainted to avoid corrosion.<ref>Hichborn, "Sheathed or Unsheathed Ships?," 30.</ref>

=== Chilean Civil War ===
[[File:Bombardeodeiquique.png|thumb|Illustration showing the [[Battle of Iquique (1891)|Battle of Iquique]] from the sea; ''Esmeralda'' is in the background to the left, accompanied by other ships of the Chilean Navy, and {{HMS|Warspite|1884|6}} as an observer in front while the port is bombarded|alt=refer to caption]]
During the 1891 [[Chilean Civil War of 1891|Chilean Civil War]], ''Esmeralda'' and most of the Chilean Navy supported the victorious Congressionalist rebels over the rival Presidential-led faction.<ref name="Brook55">Brook, ''Warships for Export'', 55.</ref> ''Esmeralda''{{'}}s commander [[Policarpo Toro]] refused to join the Congressionalists and was therefore replaced by Pedro Martínez.<ref>Fuenzalida Bade, "Capitán de fragata Policarpo Toro Hurtado," 112.</ref> In the first days of the war, ''Esmeralda'' steamed to the port of [[Talcahuano]] in search of money and weapons. It then went further south to intercept the corvette {{ship|Chilean corvette|Abtao||2}} and the two {{sclass|Almirante Lynch|torpedo gunboat|4}} torpedo gunboats coming from Europe to Chile, but did not find them.<ref>Hurtado, "Resumen," 48.</ref>

Later, ''Esmeralda'' left for the north of the country to participate with the rest of the Congressionalist squadron in blockading and controlling the ports in the area. On 19 February, during the final phase of naval operations in the north, it participated in the [[Battle of Iquique (1891)|Battle of Iquique]]. Congressionalist troops, outnumbered, managed to retain that strategic port with the decisive support of the squadron, which bombarded the positions of the Presidential troops until they capitulated.<ref>Hurtado, "Resumen," 50.</ref><ref>López Urrutia, ''Historia de la Marina'', 439–440.</ref>

On 12 March, ''Esmeralda'' engaged in a prolonged chase of the steamer ''Imperial'', an elusive transport ship that had a reputation for being the fastest on the coast, and had on occasion managed to bring reinforcements north for the Presidential cause.<ref>Hurtado, "Resumen," 50–51.</ref><ref>López Urrutia, ''Historia de la Marina'', 440.</ref> The engagement began in the early morning of that day in front of [[Antofagasta]] and lasted until night. Although ''Esmeralda'' was able to get close enough to fire shots at ''Imperial'', the cruiser was unable to reach its maximum speed due to dirty boilers and lost track of the transport that night.<ref>López Urrutia, ''Historia de la Marina'', 440–441.</ref>

[[File:Batalla de Concón.png|left|thumb|Illustration showing ''Esmeralda'' with the corvette ''Magallanes'' covering the advance of Congressionalist forces during the [[Battle of Concón]]|alt=refer to caption]]
One month later, the ship escorted the Congressionalist cargo ship ''Itata'' north to the United States so that it could take on a load of rifles. In an attempt to disguise the intended cargo's destination, the two vessels parted ways off the coast of Mexico. In what would become known as the [[Itata incident|''Itata'' incident]], the cargo ship was detained to uphold American neutrality in Chile's civil war but escaped. The US cruiser [[USS Charleston (C-2)|''Charleston'']] was sent to hunt the cargo ship down, and press outlets published their opinions on whether ''Esmeralda'' or ''Charleston'' would prevail if it came to single combat. Although the two warships did meet in [[Acapulco]], Mexico, no violence broke out. ''Itata'' reached Chile without further incident, but to put a halt to the escalating situation, the Congressionalists sent the cargo ship back to San Diego with its cargo intact.<ref>Hardy, "The Itata Incident," 195–221.</ref>

In August, ''Esmeralda'' participated in the last naval operations of the war by supporting the landing of Congressionalist troops at [[Quintero]] Bay. On the 17th, it steamed near [[Valparaíso]] and fired three shots to alert the Congressionalists of its arrival.<ref>Hurtado, "Resumen," 56.</ref> On the 21st, ''Esmeralda'' with the corvettes {{ship|Chilean corvette|O'Higgins|1866|2}} and {{ship|Chilean corvette|Magallanes|1873|2}} engaged the Presidential ground forces during the [[Battle of Concón]] from the mouth of the [[Aconcagua River]]. Their gunfire did not kill many soldiers, but it severely demoralized the Presidential forces; ''Scientific American'' stated that their shells "raised fearful havoc".<ref>Scheina, ''Latin America's Wars'', 1:402.</ref><ref>"The Recent Battles in Chile," ''Scientific American'', 13240.</ref> Finally on the 22nd, ''Esmeralda'' attacked the forts of [[Viña del Mar]] together with the ironclad {{ship|Chilean ironclad|Almirante Cochrane||2}}.<ref>López Urrutia, ''Historia de la Marina'', 452.</ref>

== The "''Esmeralda'' Affair": sale to Japan via Ecuador ==
{{anchor|Esmeralda Affair}}{{See also|Argentine–Chilean naval arms race}}
After the Chilean Civil War, the Chilean Navy briefly considered modernizing ''Esmeralda'' in March 1894 amid the quickly escalating [[Argentine–Chilean naval arms race]]. These efforts went as far as asking Armstrong to furnish plans for upgrading the ship's weapons, replacing its propulsion machinery, adding superstructure, and more. However, in November 1894 they instead sold the ship to the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]], likely in an effort to raise the funds for a new [[armored cruiser]].<ref name="Brook55"/><ref name="Scheina48">Scheina, ''Naval History'', 48.</ref>{{efn-ua|This ship would [[Chilean cruiser Esmeralda (1896)|also take the name ''Esmeralda'']].<ref name="Scheina48"/>}} Japan agreed to purchase ''Esmeralda'' for {{yen|3.3}}{{nbsp}}million, using about a third of the funds that the Japanese Cabinet and Parliament had originally earmarked for the purchase of three Argentine warships.<ref>Schencking, ''Making Waves'', 83n9.<!--"n9" = cited to page 83's footnote #9--></ref>

The sale was complicated by the Chilean government's desire to remain neutral in the ongoing [[First Sino-Japanese War]]. To get around this, the Chileans induced the Ecuadorian government to secretly act as an middleman by allegedly sending a considerable sum of money to [[Luis Cordero Crespo]], the country's president.<ref>Scheina, ''Latin America's Wars'', 1:146.</ref><ref name="Lauderbaugh">Lauderbaugh, ''History of Ecuador'', 79–80.</ref> Under this plan, brokered by [[Charles Ranlett Flint]]'s Flint & Co.,<ref name="NYT buys a cruiser">"[https://www.nytimes.com/1894/12/02/archives/ecuador-buys-a-cruiser-the-esmeraldas-sale-by-chile-negotiated-by.html Ecuador Buys a Cruiser]," ''The New York Times'', 2 December 1894, 9.</ref> ''Esmeralda'' would be sold to Ecuador. Their navy would take formal possession of the ship, then hand it to Japanese sailors in Ecuadorian territory. This would formally make Ecuador, not Chile, the seller.<ref name="Brook55"/>

When this plan was executed, there was some speculation in American press outlets that ''Esmeralda'' would remain with the Ecuadorian Navy for potential use against the Peruvian Navy.<ref name="Lauderbaugh"/><ref name="NYT buys a cruiser"/><ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/1894/12/03/archives/speculations-about-the-sale-the-esmeralda-could-easily-be.html Speculations About the Sale; The Esmeralda Could Easily Be Transferred from Ecuador to Japan]," ''The New York Times'', 3 December 1894, 5.</ref> The cruiser was handed over to the Japanese near the [[Galapagos Islands]] as planned.<ref name="Brook55" /> This arrangement would later become known as the "Esmeralda Affair", and when the secret arrangements were made public, they were seized upon by Cordero's political opponents to launch the successful [[Liberal Revolution of 1895|Liberal Revolution]].<ref name="Lauderbaugh"/>

== Japanese service ==
{{See also|Order of battle at the Battle of Tsushima}}
Although the Japanese purchased ''Esmeralda'' with the intention of using it in the First Sino-Japanese War, the cruiser arrived in Japan in February 1895—too late to take an active role in the conflict.<ref name="Brook55"/><ref>Office of Naval Intelligence, ''General Information Series'', 14:49.</ref> The Japanese Navy renamed the cruiser ''Izumi'' and employed it in the post-war [[Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1895)|invasion of Taiwan]] later that year.<ref>Van Duzer, "Naval Progress," 178.</ref> In 1899, the Japanese replaced the ship's secondary armament with quick-firing 4.7-inch guns and removed the ship's [[fighting top]]s to improve its [[ship stability|stability]]. Two years later, ''Izumi''{{'}}s ten-inch guns were removed in favor of quick-firing 6-inch weapons.<ref name="Brook55"/> Between the modifications, it remained on active duty with the standing naval squadron and took part in what the US [[Office of Naval Intelligence]] called "by far the most comprehensive" naval training exercise ever conducted by Japan up to that point. The exercise involved a large portion of the Japanese Navy; at different parts of it, ''Izumi'' was assigned to a [[green water]] blocking squadron and a [[blue water]] attacking fleet.<ref>Office of Naval Intelligence, ''General Information Series'', 20:397–408.</ref>

Japan and its navy went to war again in 1904, this time [[Russo-Japanese War|against Russia]]. In December of that year, ''Izumi'' was deployed on a patrol line south of [[Dalian Bay]] after the Japanese cruiser [[Japanese cruiser Akashi|''Akashi'']] struck a [[Naval mine|mine]]. Later that month, ''Izumi'' was sent back to Japan for minor repairs so it would be fit for combat against the approaching Russian [[Baltic Fleet]]. When the Japanese deployed their ships for what would later be known as the [[Battle of Tsushima]], a decisive Japanese victory, ''Izumi'' was one of four cruisers to make up the Sixth Division within the Third Squadron. These groups were under the commands of Rear Admiral [[Tōgō Masamichi]] and Vice Admiral [[Kataoka Shichirō]], respectively.<ref>Corbett, ''Maritime Operations'', 110, 130, 216.</ref>

{{maplink|frame=yes|frame-align=left|frame-width=250|frame-height=300|zoom=7|type=point|id=Q52055|text=The Tsushima Strait is located between present-day South Korea (top left) and Japan (bottom right)}}

''Izumi''{{'}}s pre-battle assigned role was to support a line of [[auxiliary cruisers]] stationed in the [[Tsushima Strait]]. These ships were charged with spotting the Russian fleet so its Japanese counterpart could move into position to engage. This line was later described by historian [[Julian Corbett]] as "ill-covered," and ''Izumi'' compounded the issue by being {{convert|8-9|mi|km}} out of position on the morning of the battle (27 May 1905). Moreover, it had trouble finding the Russians after investigating erroneously located spotting reports radioed in by the auxiliary [[Shinano Maru (1900)|''Shinano Maru'']] at 4:45 am.<ref>Corbett, ''Maritime Operations'', 221—223.</ref>

Around 6:30 or 6:40 am, ''Izumi'' finally made visual contact with the opposing Russian fleet; it was the first proper warship to do so. Correcting the previously mistaken spotting, ''Izumi'' shadowed the Russians for several hours, correctly identifying the lead Russian flagship as a cruiser of the [[Izumrud-class cruiser|''Izumrud'' class]], and reported their movements back to the main Japanese fleet.<ref name="Brook56">Brook, ''Warships for Export'', 56.</ref><ref>Pleshakov, ''The Tsar's Last Armada'', 262–263.</ref><ref>Corbett, ''Maritime Operations'', 226.</ref> ''Izumi'' also warned off an army hospital ship and a troop transport in the area before they were caught by the Russians.<ref>Corbett, ''Maritime Operations'', 235.</ref>

As the two fleets drew near for battle, ''Izumi'' was forced to turn away from heavy fire at around 1:50 pm; the change in course allowed it to cut off two of the Russian fleet's hospital ships, which were later captured by two of the Japanese auxiliary cruisers.<ref>Corbett, ''Maritime Operations'', 273–274.</ref> Later in the battle, when the Japanese main battle line had [[Crossing the T|'crossed the T']] of the Russian fleet and forced it to turn around, ''Izumi'' and several other lighter ships from Japanese squadrons were caught in close proximity to heavy Russian ships. ''Izumi'' escaped with minimal damage, in part due to the intervention of the Japanese battleships of the Second Squadron.<ref>Corbett, ''Maritime Operations'', 278–279.</ref>

After the Japanese victory, ''Izumi'' and the rest of the Sixth Division were deployed to support the [[Japanese invasion of Sakhalin|invasion of Sakhalin]] by escorting the army's transport ships.<ref>Corbett, ''Maritime Operations'', 356–357, 365.</ref>

[[File:Japanese cruiser Izumi at Sasebo 1908.jpg|thumb|''Izumi'' in 1908|alt=refer to caption]]
Soon after the conclusion of the war in September 1905, the aging ''Izumi'' was described by the ''[[Japan Weekly Mail]]'' as being "obsolete" and "fit only for non-combat duties".<ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=gihCAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA103 The Japanese Navy]," ''Japan Weekly Mail'', July 7, 1906, 3.</ref> It was used instead for auxiliary tasks for several years.<ref name="Brook56"/> For example, the same newspaper reported in February 1906 that the ship would transport former Prime Minister of Japan and the first [[Japanese Resident-General of Korea]] [[Itō Hirobumi]] to his post.<ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=gihCAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA143 Korea]," ''Japan Weekly Mail'', 10 February 1906, 143.</ref> On 1 April 1912, ''Izumi'' was [[wikt:stricken#Adjective|struck]] from Japan's navy list.<ref name="Brook56"/><ref>Jentschura, Jung, and Mickel, ''Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy'', 99.</ref> It was later [[ship breaking|sold for scrapping]] in [[Yokosuka]] for {{yen|90,975}}.<ref>"[https://books.google.com/books?id=vXdRAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA180 Local and General]," ''The Japan Chronicle'', 30 January 1913, 180.</ref>

== Footnotes ==
{{notelist-ua}}

== Endnotes ==
{{reflist}}

== References ==
{{Commons category|Esmeralda (ship, 1884)}}
* Bainbridge-Hoff, W.M. [https://books.google.com/books?id=y9mgAAAAMAAJ ''Examples, Conclusions, and Maxims of Modern Naval Tactics'']. General Information Series, no. 3. Washington, D.C.: Office of Naval Intelligence, Bureau of Navigation, US Naval Department, 1884. {{oclc|684410361}}. Accessed 5 April 2023.
* Bastable, Marshall J. ''Arms and the State: Sir William Armstrong and the Remaking of British Naval Power, 1854–1914''. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate, 2004. {{isbn|978-0754634041}}.
* Brook, Peter. "Armstrongs and the Italian Navy." In ''Warship 2002–2003'', edited by Antony Preston, 94–115. London: Conway Maritime Press, 2003. {{isbn|978-0851779263|link=no}}.
* ———. "[https://www.jstor.org/stable/44886103 The Elswick Cruisers: Part I, The Early Types]." ''Warship International'' 7, no. 2 (30 June 1970): 154–176. {{issn|0043-0374}}.
* ———. ''Warships for Export: Armstrong Warships, 1867–1927''. Gravesend, UK: World Ship Society, 1999. {{isbn|978-0905617893|link=no}}.
* "[https://hdl.handle.net/2027/hvd.hb1k5p The Chilean Cruiser 'Esmeralda']." ''The Steamship'' (London) 3, no. 3 (1 February 1885): 41–42. <!-- also at https://books.google.com/books?id=3TgpAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41 -->
* Corbett, Julian S. ''Maritime Operations in the Russo–Japanese War, 1904–1905''. Volume 2. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1994. First published in 1915. {{isbn|9781557501295|link=no}}. Accessed 5 April 2023.
* "[https://www.armada.cl/tradicion-e-historia/unidades-historicas/e/crucero-esmeralda-3 Crucero 'Esmeralda' 3°] [Cruiser ''Esmeralda'' #3]." ''Unidades Historicas''. Armada de Chile (Chilean Navy). Accessed 5 April 2023.
* Fuenzalida Bade, Rodrigo. "[https://revistamarina.cl/revistas/1973/1/rfuenzalidab.pdf Capitán de fragata Policarpo Toro Hurtado] [Frigate Captain Policarpo Toro Hurtado]." ''Revista de Marina Journal'' 90, no. 692 (January–February 1973): 108–112. {{issn|0034-8511|link=no}}. Accessed 5 April 2023.
* Grant, Jonathan A. ''Rulers, Guns, and Money: The Global Arms Trade in the Age of Imperialism''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007. {{isbn|9780674024427|link=no}}.
* Hardy, Osgood. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=p_18PAkYPvUC&pg=PA195 The ''Itata'' Incident]." ''The Hispanic American Historical Review'' 5 (1922), 195–225. {{issn|0018-2168|link=no}}. Accessed 5 April 2023.
* Hichborn, Philip (1889). "[https://books.google.com/books?id=EX9KAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA30 Sheathed or Unsheathed Ships?]". ''Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute'' 15 (1889): 21–56. {{issn|0041-798X|link=no}}.
* Hurtado, Homero. "[https://repositorioarchivohistorico.armada.cl/handle/1/109 Resumen de las operaciones navales en la revolución de 1891] [Summary of naval operations in the revolution of 1891]." ''Revista de Marina Journal'' 76, no. 614 (January–February 1960): 47–57. {{issn|0034-8511|link=no}}. Accessed 5 April 2023.
* Jentschura, Hansgeorg, Dieter Jung, and Peter Mickel. ''Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869–1945.'' Translated by Antony Preston and J.D. Brown. Annapolis, MD: United States Naval Institute, 1977. {{isbn|9780870218934|link=no}}.
* Lauderbaugh, George. ''The History of Ecuador''. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood, 2012. {{isbn|9780313362507|link=no}}.
* López Urrutia, Carlos. ''Historia de la Marina de Chile'' [''History of the Chilean Navy'']. Santiago: El Ciprés Editores, 2007. OCLC {{OCLC search link|577102}}. 
* Lyon, Hugh. "Chile." In ''Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships 1860–1905'', edited by Robert Gardiner, Roger Chesneau, and Eugene Kolesnik, 410–415. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1979. {{isbn|9780851771335|link=no}}.
* [[Office of Naval Intelligence]]. ''General Information Series: Information from Abroad''. 21 vols. ''General Information Series''. Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1883–1902. OCLC {{OCLC search link|684410361}}.
* Milanovich, Kathrin. "''Naniwa'' and ''Takachiho'': Elswick-built Protected Cruisers of the Imperial Japanese Navy". In ''Warship 2004'', edited by Antony Preston, 29–56. London: Conway Maritime Press, 2014. {{isbn|9780851779485|link=no}}.
* Perrett, J.R. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=okoxAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA211 Some Notes on Warships; Designed and Constructed by Sir W.G. Armstrong, Whitworth, & Co., Ltd.]" ''Mechanical Engineer'' 34, no. 867 (4 September 1914): 211–213. Accessed 5 April 2023.
* Pleshakov, Constantine. ''The Tsar's Last Armada: The Epic Journey to the Battle of Tsushima.'' New York: Basic Books, 2008. {{isbn|9780465057917|link=no}}.
* Quiñones López, Carlos. "[https://revistamarina.cl/revistas/1989/3/cquinonesl.pdf La Tercera Esmeralda] [The Third Esmeralda]." ''Revista de Marina Journal'' 106, no. 790 (May–June 1989): 308–313. {{issn|0034-8511|link=no}}. Accessed 5 April 2023.
* Rodger, Nicholas A. M. "The First Light Cruisers." ''The Mariner's Mirror'' 65, no. 3 (1979): 209–230. {{doi|10.1080/00253359.1979.10659148}}. {{issn|0025-3359|link=no}}.
* Sater, William F. ''Chile and the United States: Empires in Conflict''. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1990. {{isbn|9780820312491|link=no}}.
* Scheina, Robert. ''Latin America: A Naval History 1810–1987''. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1987. {{isbn|9780870212956|link=no}}.
* Scheina, Robert. ''Latin America's Wars''. 2 vols. Dulles, VA: Brassey's, 2003. {{isbn|9781574884494|9781574884524|link=no|leadout=and}}.
* Schencking, J. Charles. ''Making Waves: Politics, Propaganda, And The Emergence Of The Imperial Japanese Navy, 1868–1922''. Stanford, CA, US: Stanford University Press, 2005. {{isbn|9780804749770|link=no}}.
* Sondhaus, Lawrence. ''Naval Warfare, 1815–1914''. London: Routledge, 2001. {{isbn|9780203171103|link=no}}.
* "[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo.31924071607372 The Recent Battles in Chile]." ''Scientific American'' 32, supplement no. 829 (21 November 1891): 13240. {{issn|0096-3763|link=no}}. Accessed 5 April 2023.
* Tromben, Carlos. "[https://www.ijnhonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/pdf_tromben_spanish.pdf Presencia Naval. El Crucero ''Esmeralda'' En Panamá] <nowiki>[</nowiki>[https://www.ijnhonline.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/01/pdf_tromben_english.pdf Naval Presence: The Cruiser Esmeralda in Panama]<nowiki>]</nowiki>." ''International Journal of Naval History'' 1, no. 1 (April 2002). {{issn|1932-6556|link=no}}. Accessed 5 April 2023.
* Thomas Cavieres, Federico. "[https://revistamarina.cl/revistas/1990/5/fthomasc.pdf Cruceros al servicio de la Armada de Chile] [Cruisers in the service of the Chilean Navy]." ''Revista de Marina Journal'' 107, no. 798 (September–October 1990): 515–532. {{issn|0034-8511|link=no}}. Accessed 5 April 2023.
* Van Duzer, L.S. "[https://books.google.com/books?id=K6U6AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA167 Naval Progress in 1895]." ''The United Service'' 15, no. 2 (February 1896), 167–184. {{issn|2640-6942|link=no}}. Accessed 5 April 2023.
* Vio Valdivieso, Horacio. ''Reseña historica de los nombres de las unidades de la armada de Chile'' [Historical review of the names of the units of the Chilean Navy]. Santiago: Imprenta Chile, 1933. OCLC {{OCLC search link|68182144}}.

== External links ==
*{{Cite web |title='The Launching of the Chilean cruiser "Esmeralda" on the Tyne, 6th June 1883 23.2 x 38.4cm. (9 1/8 x 15 1/8in.) |url=https://www.bonhams.com/auctions/11207/lot/74/ |access-date=2023-06-02 |website=Bonhams}}

{{Chilean cruisers}}
{{Russo-JapaneseWarJapaneseShips}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Esmeralda}}
[[Category:Cruisers of the Chilean Navy]]
[[Category:Cruisers of the Imperial Japanese Navy]]
[[Category:Ships built by Armstrong Whitworth]]
[[Category:Ships built on the River Tyne]]
[[Category:1883 ships]]
[[Category:Naval ships of Japan]]
[[Category:First Sino-Japanese War cruisers of Japan]]
[[Category:Russo-Japanese War cruisers of Japan]]